The Meaning of the Old Testament Law: Its Functionality Then and Now

Scholars have wrestled with the meaning and importance of the Pentateuch, the Bible's first five books for centuries. Central to this discussion is the question of how the law functioned within ancient Israel and what role, if any, it plays for Christians today. While some have divided the law into moral, ceremonial, and civil sections to determine its applicability, others have pondered its deeper theological purpose, seeking to extract principles that could explain how a believer should live today. This article expounds on the true meaning of the Pentateuch and argues that the accurate function of the law is not to offer modern believers a direct set of rules to apply, but instead to point them toward the person and work of Christ, in whom the law finds its ultimate fulfillment.

The Meaning of the Pentateuch Within the Canon of Scripture

When properly examined and exegeted, the Pentateuch's overall meaning is much deeper and frames the entire Bible. However, before considering the meaning of the complete Pentateuch within the larger story of the Old and New Testaments, a wiser approach would be to dissect its most essential aspects and comprehend their roles and purposes. This will help the reader piece together the whole puzzle more meaningfully.

The Pentateuch can be viewed in four primary literary forms—narratives, laws, covenants, and poems. Each component will be briefly examined to determine the Pentateuch's overall meaning.

Narratives

The Pentateuch contains several significant narrative portions that help drive the story forward. John Sailhamer lists the following: 1) primeval history (Gen 1–11), 2) patriarchal narratives (Gen 12–50), 3) exodus narratives (Ex 1–19), 4) wilderness narratives (Num 11–25), and 5) conquest narratives (Deut 1–11). [1] One unfortunate idea that this essay will discuss in detail is that the Pentateuch is legalistic and irrelevant to the modern Christian. The narratives are direct proof against this idea and are strong vehicles for communicating theological meaning that pertains to all people throughout time. They are strategically and carefully created to portray God’s promises and theology, which run throughout the entire biblical canon. For example, some scholars choose to treat the primeval history (Gen 1-11) as separate from the rest of Genesis, stating that this narrative describes a world untouched by God’s promises to the patriarchs. [2] On the contrary, Gen 1-11 is not merely a strange story about how the world was created, isolated from the rest of Genesis and, indeed, from the rest of scripture. It is more concerned with the history of Israel (not the world) and has direct ties to the concerns of the rest of the Pentateuch. [3] Gen 1-11 falls into the puzzle as a necessary part of Israel’s salvific history, showing a tremendous unity within the entire Torah. [4]

Laws

There are three significant law collections within the Sinai narrative itself—the Covenant Code, the Priestly Code, and the Holiness Code. [5] These laws represent God’s response to different failures that occur during the Israelites' journey, but they also stand for more and can even have their own individual purposes. For example, there were already laws existing in Exodus 18, but God still gives additional laws in Exodus 19, which suggests that they have their own distinct purposes. [6] Within the larger scheme of a story about a covenant people, the laws were not merely rules to restrict them by listing dos and don’ts, along with penalties for disobedience. More than that, a central purpose of the law was to instruct them how they could enjoy the blessings that God promises to those who walk in His ways and enjoy life in general. [7]

Covenants

Covenants are an essential theme to understand if one wishes to grasp the message of the Pentateuch and, indeed, the whole bible. Very early on in Genesis, there are three major covenants that take place—the Noahic and Abrahamic covenants, along with the covenants with Isaac and Jacob. The Pentateuchal covenants represent the type of relationship that would take place between God and his covenant people—the Israelites. Simply put, “covenants” can be defined as a contract which states how God relates to His people, marked by a divine pledge of grace and promises that express their relationship with Him. [8] This meaning continues to have relevance throughout the Old Testament, into the New Testament, and even for Christians today.

Poems

There are four major poems within the Pentateuch—Genesis 49:1-27, Exodus 15:1-21, Numbers 23-24, and Deuteronomy 32-33. [9] The various poems represent “breaks” in the narratives, periodically developing the story and carrying the central theme further along, much like a song in a Hollywood musical might accomplish. Readers probably often skim past the poems, but if one carefully studies them, it is easy to see that they serve as clarifications of the message of the Pentateuch—that God is faithful and keeps His promises. [10] They also represent the author’s viewpoint on the events of the narratives that have happened thus far in the journey. [11]

The poetic sections of the Pentateuch also look ahead to the rise of a royal figure from the tribe of Judah who would create an eternal kingdom. Genesis 49 links this king directly to Judah, connecting him to the ruler portrayed in Numbers 24:9 and Deuteronomy 33:7. This coming reign is said to unfold “in the last days.” According to Sailhamer, this person might refer to David or Jesus. However, he also notes that Deuteronomy 4:30 uses the phrase “last days” to describe a time far in the future—well beyond Israel’s return from exile—suggesting a prophetic time beyond the Old Testament period. [12]

The Overall Meaning of the Entire Pentateuch

Now that the smaller puzzle pieces of the Pentateuch have been disassembled and briefly analyzed, the reader can put them back together to form a cogent metanarrative. The following assessment will be the overarching framework that offers coherence to the four major literary components listed above, explaining how the Pentateuch fits within itself and the canon of scripture.

According to Jewish tradition, the Hebrew Bible can be divided into portions, representing the Tanak. The first portion would be the Torah (Pentateuch), while the second would be the Nebi’im, the Prophets, both former and latter. The third portion is the Ketubim—the Writings. Some scholars make further distinctions to arrive at a more efficient meaning of the overall Hebrew Bible. While the Prophets can be partitioned into former (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings) and latter (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve Minor Prophets), some choose to see the former prophets as being connected to the Torah, generating a total of nine books known as the Enneateuch, in order to create a “Primary History.” [13] In biblical studies, the Enneateuch groups the Pentateuch and the former prophets because they form a connected historical and theological narrative unit, from creation to the fall of Jerusalem in the Babylonian exile. This discussion centers only on the Bible's first five books, but temporarily linking them with the former prophets can help reveal the true meaning of the Pentateuch.

The general climax of all the portions of the Tanak is usually the fall of Jerusalem, in which the Israelites go into Babylonian captivity. This is the culmination and consequence of the sins represented in all the narratives and other literary genres. However, although the fall of Jerusalem serves as the tipping point in many portions throughout the Bible, it does not mark the midpoint of the Enneateuch or the Primary History. Instead, a pinnacle of these first nine books occurs in Deuteronomy, the midpoint of the Enneateuch and the end of the Pentateuch, when Moses, at the end of his life, stands on Mount Sinai telling all God has done for Israel, focusing primarily on His covenant and its laws. Exodus also lists this covenantal event, but the restatement of this important event in Deuteronomy and the middle of the Enneateuch should not be overlooked. [14]

The purpose of the Pentateuch was to present a theological history that explained how God gave a covenant of faith, along with all its promises, to the father Abraham. This promise was extended to the nation that came from him, the chosen people of Israel, who were later divinely rescued from slavery in Egypt by grace and then given a Promised Land in Canaan. The laws were presented with a possible two-fold meaning to tell the complete story of the Pentateuch: 1) responses to Israel’s various failures to set boundaries, 2) guidelines to show the Israelites how to live under the divine covenant and receive the blessings of it. The poems, especially the final farewell of Moses in Deuteronomy 33, also look ahead to a future king who would bring the tribes of Israel together (Deut. 33:4-5, 7) and establish everlasting safety, peace, abundance, blessings, and salvation. [15] This one feature alone within the Pentateuch demonstrates how it has lasting relevance and meaning throughout the entire canon of scripture, even into the New Testament.

In summary, it is challenging to attribute only one significant meaning to the Pentateuch in a flamboyant sentence. The Pentateuch we have today actually contains a few crucial intentions the reader should know. First, it serves as the theology of the one true God that extends throughout the entire Bible. Second, it tells the story of faith in the history of the Israelites. Third, it contains the laws of God, which were responses to the Israelites’ failures and guidelines of how they should live. Fourth, it outlines the covenant(s) of God in detail. Fifth, it prophesied the coming Messiah, who would fulfill the law and bring a New Covenant.

How Did Old Testament Law Function in Ancient Israel

Thus far, this article has explored the Pentateuch's overall meaning within the scripture canon. The next two significant portions will examine a vital subcategory from the Pentateuch—the laws—and will begin by understanding how these laws applied and functioned in ancient Israel.

Many understand all the laws in the Old Testament as a combined whole, referring to them as the Mosaic Law. It is true that God and Moses understood the laws as an integrated whole, seeing every aspect of life under God’s sovereign rule. While modern readers often divide the Mosaic Law into moral, ceremonial, and civil categories, this framework is a bit misleading and not very helpful because the biblical texts themselves make no such distinctions. [16] However, it is also true that ancient Israel and its ancient Near Eastern neighbors had a single, encompassing understanding of the abstract idea of “law” concerning jurisprudence. [17] The Hebrew word for “law” (torah) does not always refer only to rigid legislation, but contains a semantic range that extends also to advice or guidance (Gen. 46:28, “lead,” and Exod. 15:25, “showed”). [18] It would resemble our modern understanding of the word “school,” as this could refer to a public school system, a university-level institute, an online school program, home schooling, and even an unaccredited program offered by an uncredentialed instructor.

It is first essential to understand the law with the backdrop of God's covenant with the children of Israel. When Israel was brought out of Egypt and crossed the Red Sea, it would seem that God’s initial desire at Mount Sinai was a personal, grace-based relationship with Israel that resembled his covenant with Abraham, that would be based on faith alone with no laws. [19] This type of covenant would be one where the suzerain (God) blessed the vassal (Israel), despite their moral failures; the moral living that the vassal would do would flow from a heart of love toward the suzerain, and would be executed from a standpoint of righteousness and salvation. In Exodus 19, the people were to “go up” to the mountain with the blasting of the horn and approach their God. However, the people refused to go up to the mountain when the horn was blasted, but instead, drew back in fear, resulting in a change of relationship and covenant. [20] This version of the Sinai covenant presents a viewpoint which shows that the people went from being a nation of priests (Ex 19:6) to a nation with priests, where Moses and Aaron alone would go up, and the tribes were forbidden from touching the mountain. Rather than relying solely on simple faith and obedience, Israel’s covenant faithfulness was now grounded in the legalistic requirements of the Decalogue and the Covenant Code. [21] As the Apostle Paul said thousands of years later, “the law was added because of transgressions.” (Gal. 3:19) But before some of the laws were given, it is clear from a careful reading of this Sinai account that it was a covenant first based on trust, faith, and simple obedience. [22]

It would appear that the laws began coming as responses to the Israelites’ failures within their covenant. The narrative of the golden calf marked a change in the nature of the covenant and supplied additions to its laws, of what can be called the Priestly Code. Later in Leviticus 17, the incident of the goat idols served as a transition from the Priestly Code to additional laws which came in the form of the Holiness Code, which were directed towards the common people (not the priests, who failed in the incident of the golden calf). [23]

Most of these laws were in the form of two general types of laws that were common in the ancient Near East, such as those seen in Sumerian and Akkadian texts. The first were apodictic (unconditional) laws that came in the form of the imperatives (i.e., the Decalogue), curses, or sentences concerning capital crimes. The second type of laws was casuistic (conditional “if-thens”), usually with a protasis and an apodosis, and these were generally more standard in the ancient Near East. [24] Understanding these types of laws aids the reader in grasping exactly how the laws functioned in ancient Israel. For example, the famous De. 24:1–4 passage about divorce was actually a casuistic law that doesn’t really concern divorce as much as it portrays a law against remarrying a first wife with the possible intention of becoming wealthy from two dowries. Verses 1–3 are the protasis (the “ifs”) while verse 4 is the actual law (“her former husband, who sent her away, may not take her again to be his wife”). Still, the centuries following De. 24 proves that the people were using this passage mainly for the perceived acceptance of divorce. This teaches the reader that the laws did play a significant role in shaping society and affected, to some degree, everyday life for the ancient Israelites.

The Israelites understood that the law originated from God and was mediated through Moses. [25] It covered much of what was practical and relevant to everyday life for the local and national systems. [26] This essay will point out shortly that although there were laws in place that God expected His people to uphold, the law still centered on a covenant based on faith and trust. At this point, it would be beneficial to examine how some of the modern church views the law in the context of ancient Israel.

Some believers seem to adopt an antinomian stance and associate the Pentateuch only with its laws while presenting it as ritualistic, unspiritual, and irrelevant to the modern church. Granted, most of the contemporary church does believe that specific laws are still completely applicable today as they stand. Still, there have been popular ministers who have claimed that Christians should “unhinge” from the Old Testament. This statement invites many other questions, but as it stands, it is not helpful or accurate to say that a believer should “unhinge” from the Old Testament if, by that statement, the minister means that Christians should not have much to do with it. But the reason for beliefs like these is likely because of a wrong perception about the laws and how they functioned in ancient Israel, the main one being that they were “saved” by rigorously keeping the laws, making it a covenant of works-based righteousness, of which the New Testament clearly speaks against.

While the laws were a massive part of the Pentateuch for the ancient Israelites, observing them did not accomplish salvation or righteousness. Again, the laws were God’s guidelines added to the main covenant that should have been followed for their own good and would have flowed naturally from a heart that genuinely loves God and delights in the law of the Lord (Psalm 1:1–3). The covenant is vital to understand if one desires to learn the proper function of OT law. The law does not stand on its own or is separate from the Pentateuch or the Old Covenant; rather, it contributes to the preservation of the relationship between God and Israel and also offers benefits for the people. [27] Doing or not doing them would have resulted in blessings or curses, but this does not take away from the fact that the Old Covenant was based on faith and trust.

When Genesis 15:6 says that “Abraham believed God, and it was reckoned to him for righteousness,” this was part of the author’s compositional “faith strategy” that continues throughout the entire Pentateuch, runs through the prophetic literature, and finally, into the New Testament. [28] Even in Exodus 19, it is evident that it is still a covenant based on faith, trust, and obedience. [29]

How Does Old Testament Law Function in the Church Today?

In basic hermeneutics, the reader must first understand how the scriptures applied to the intended audience and what the original author actually meant. Once this is done, complete hermeneutics is not achieved until the reader steps back into the modern world and discovers how these scriptures apply to today’s church. This article has looked at how the law functioned within ancient Israel, but now the question remains: How does the Old Testament law function in the modern church, and how can the reader apply it?

The Meaning of “Relevance”

Normal church-goers and scholars alike commonly agree that the believer is saved by grace alone through faith, and works are not for salvation or obtaining righteousness. Gane and Sailhamer both do a tremendous job of explaining this carefully within their books about the meaning of the Pentateuch and the law. However, most of the questions and confusion from these discussions about their relevance to the modern church stem from a misunderstanding of precisely what is being said when one says statements such as, “The Old Testament law is not relevant.” How far should Christians run with this? Are there partial truths that should be brought out? What is meant by “relevant?” For example, Gane is entirely accurate in saying the New Testament does not replace the Old Testament, but rather, it is a continuation of the faith-story. [30] But does this also mean that Christians are still “under” certain portions of the Old Covenant law? Indeed, the Old Testament is relevant to the New Covenant believer, but in what sense? For one, it is the beginning story of how and why the church came into existence. The stories, including the Pentateuch, speak of faith and theology that are still much alive and needed for today.

Certain aspects of the Old Testament and the Pentateuch are relevant today, and while the aspect of the law is an essential part of the Pentateuch, it is still, nevertheless, a separate aspect that should also be studied solely if the purpose is to understand its function for today. To examine the aspect of the law and its function for modern believers specifically, one must go further in their study to arrive at a well-balanced and insightful conclusion.

Traditional Views 

Block provided a valuable contribution to understanding one traditional view concerning the law today: that the law should be viewed as tripartite—moral, ceremonial, and civil. Many believers would say that the ceremonial and civil aspects of the law have no authority today for various reasons, such as the idea that since the ceremonial laws primarily dealt with sacrificial and cleansing rituals, these do not apply. As for the civil side, many would say that these laws were concerned with certain judicial matters for only the nation of Israel and, therefore, are not in effect today. In summary, the moral aspect of the law (such as the Decalogue and possibly certain other moral-sounding commandments) is all that stands today, was never made obsolete, and was literally “carried over” into the New Covenant. When one holds this view and reads certain scriptures, such as Romans 6:14 (“you are not under law but under grace”), the idea seems to be that Paul was speaking of the ceremonial and civil features of the law, and not the moral. Although these reformed distinctions  are not explicitly stated anywhere in the Bible, but are later Christian theories and constructs, Gane seems to admit that this doesn’t necessarily mean that this traditional view is entirely incorrect. [31] However deep this view goes, the conventional view would at least say that certain aspects of the law have a function for the church today, in that they “still stand” and should be followed.

Some also believe that the apostle Paul was somewhat “against” Moses, but Block says this is not the case. If one believes in the harmony and inspired traits of the Bible, then Paul cannot be against Moses, and the Pentateuch could not have recorded something to be later declared as “incorrect” by Paul. Rather, if the reader finds that Paul seems to be saying something contrary to Moses, then the next logical question should be to ask whether or not he is really speaking on the same issues that Moses was addressing. [32] In many cases, Paul was actually agreeing with Moses and responding to anyone who would say that salvation could be obtained by keeping the law, as seen, for example, in his statements regarding circumcision. [33]

Gane’s and Block’s Methods for a Functioning Old Testament Law Today 

Throughout the centuries, many scholars have presented various ways the church should apply the Old Testament law to life today, such as the tripartite method discussed above. Gane proposes an approach that combines the strong points of some of these methods, while bypassing their weaknesses and building upon them, which he calls “Progressive Moral Wisdom.” [34] A believer can apply Gane’s method by analyzing a given law by itself, and then within specific systems, contexts, and processes. Last, the believer should relate their findings regarding the function of the law to their modern life. [35] This last step involves extracting principles and applying them in ways that relate to contemporary daily life. Two examples he offers are from Deut. 22:8 and Exod. 21:29–32, in which there are requirements to construct a parapet around a flat roof and to control one’s dangerous ox. The principle and application that applies today, he says, is to maintain safe conditions. [36] Perhaps, according to Gane’s Progressive Moral Wisdom, the law concerning the ox can be applied to dog owners—they should control and maintain their dogs so that they do not cause damage or bodily harm.

Block’s method for a functioning Old Testament law is relatively similar, in which his basic conclusion is that the believer should seize principles in the laws which obviously have permanent relevance and apply them to today. [37] The method focuses not on the question, “Which laws need to be obeyed?” Rather, it asks, “How can these laws be obeyed?”

Gane’s and Block’s methods demonstrate how some view the law as functioning today. This article will now expound on these views and others while offering alternative details and methods.

Alternative Details and Methods for a Functioning Law Today 

The tripartite method for a functioning law today has several difficulties. First, Sailhamer, Gane, and Block all seem to agree that the Bible itself does not make this kind of distinction. Instead, the Israelites saw the law as a composite whole; while some might be “weightier” than others, they all should be obeyed. Next, it is too challenging and subject to opinion to divide the laws into these three watertight compartments. [38] Last, it does not seem hermeneutically sound to assume that when Paul implied that the law had ended, he only referred to the ceremonial and civil ones, not the moral.

One difficulty of Gane’s and Block’s methods is similar: extracting principles and figuring out ways to apply Old Covenant laws is really, to an extent, also subject to opinion. Some are seemingly more eternally relevant (“you shall not kill”), but others are not. When the reader circles around one that is not so clear yet creates a principle, it would be good if all scholars acknowledged the simple fact that it is, in reality, an assumption. There are merits to this method of applying a functional Old Testament law, but it can only take a Christian so far and contains holes. Does God expect believers to read the law and then learn to creatively apply it to their lives in a way that fits? Does the law function in the church like this? The following explanation will show that while principles exist in scripture, there is a better way to understand the Old Testament law for today.

Some authors cited in this essay seem to suggest that the New Testament’s ideas should not be “read back into” the Old Testament, but instead, the Old Testament should be read alone with its own ideas. But this is slightly difficult to grasp, especially if the same authors insist there is a theological and ethical unity between the testaments. [39] The apostle Paul’s ideas concerning the law were Spirit-led and inspired, and his words should be significantly considered when determining the function of the law for today.

The New Testament teaches that the believer is dead to the law (Rom. 7:4), not under the law (Rom. 6:14), freed from the law (Rom. 7:6), and Christ is the end of the law (Rom. 10:4). In Romans 6, Paul is speaking to a mixture of Jews and Gentiles, and his goal is to convince them that true obedience to God which leads to holiness and salvation comes from being united to Christ and his resurrection. [40] While Christians are no longer under the law, the fantastic factor about grace is that the law is also fulfilled in them at the same time. [41] Paul does not ever command believers to “do” the law or suggest that they should read it in order to extract applicable principles to their day. [42]

The solution is not to extract various principles, but to begin with Christ and not the laws of Moses. This approach sees that the entire law of Moses has ended in the sense that the believer no longer needs to ask, “What does the law teach?” The believer comes to Christ to discover how to live this new life by walking in the Spirit. [43]

While the law was doable to ancient Israel (Deut. 30:11-14), the New Testament comes along and says that they still could not keep it (Acts 15:10). Paul elaborates on this in Romans 7 by explaining the exact reason why keeping the law would never work—because of the sin in them. He declares that while he wanted to do good, and while the law itself is holy and good, the sin in him kept him from doing it. In this manner, the law (Paul is referencing the Decalogue in this chapter) actually produced death. He ends his explanation by stating that the answer is Christ (Rom. 7:25).

Certain principles, laws, or simply, “God’s eternal desires,” might stand today, but the Christian does not adhere to them because they continued from the Old Covenant or because the Mosaic Law, in some way, is still “functioning.” The entire Old Covenant is obsolete (Heb. 8:13). When one walks in the Spirit and focuses on Christ, he will genuinely and self-effortlessly walk in God’s ways, whatever they may be, which some would call the “Law of Love” or the “Law of Christ.” In other words, there could be standing principles, and there are definitely ways in which God desires His children to live. But consider how one would discover these ways and live them out. For example, a parent might know or not know that there are laws in place that state that abusing their child is wrong. However, a loving parent does not live this law out by intentionally adhering to it or principle-izing it. The way is naturally lived out due to the love that the parent has for the child.

Therefore, the law functions in the church today for the purpose it is stated to—as a tutor to point the church to Christ. When Christ has the church, he will take it from there! It is not functioning in that the church should adhere to it by putting their eyes on it and applying it in a way that fits; but it is there to show the church that without Christ, they cannot survive or live the Godly life that he would want them to live.

Conclusion

After examining the meaning of the Pentateuch and the function of the law both in ancient Israel and for believers today, it is clear that it was never given as a simple checklist of rules to follow across all generations. Instead, it was a covenantal framework that pointed Israel—and certainly all humanity—toward their need for God’s grace and redemption found in Jesus. For contemporary readers, the focus should not be on extracting direct applications from the law, but on discovering how it finds its fulfillment in Jesus. In Christ, the law’s true purpose is revealed: to lead God’s people into a personal relationship, not of legal adherence, but in grace, faith, and changed hearts.

Sources

[1] John H. Sailhammer, The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition and Interpretation (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2009), 323.

[2] David J. A. Clines, The Theme of the Pentateuch (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1978) 61.

[3] John Sailhamer, “Creation, Genesis 1–11, and the Canon,” Bulletin for Biblical Research 10, no. 1 (2000): 91, https://doi.org/10.2307/26422193.

[4] Ibid.

[5] Sailhamer, The Meaning of the Pentateuch, 365.

[6] Ibid, 376.

[7] Roy E. Gane, Old Testament Law for Christians: Original Context and Enduring Application (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2017), 18.

[8] Trent C. Butler, Holman Old Testament Commentary: Isaiah (Nashville, TN: B&H, 2002), 383.

[9] Sailhamer, The Meaning of the Pentateuch, 324.

[10] Ibid, 242-243.

[11] Ibid, 322.

[12] Ibid, 335.

[13] Walter C. Kaiser, Jr., Recovering the Unity of the Bible: One Continuous Story, Plan, and Purpose (Grand Rapids, MI: HarperCollins Christian Publishing, 2009), 51, accessed April 25, 2025, ProQuest Ebook Central.

[14] Ibid, 52.

[15] Sailhamer, The Meaning of the Pentateuch, 331-332.

[16] Daniel I. Block, The Gospel According to Moses: Theological and Ethical Reflections on the Book of Deuteronomy (Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2012), 128.

[17] Jonathan S. Greer, John W. Hilber, and John H. Walton, eds., Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018), 492.

[18] Ibid.

[19] Sailhamer, The Meaning of the Pentateuch, 379.

[20] Ibid, 384-385.

[21] Ibid, 379.

[22] Ibid, 393.

[23] Ibid, 364.

[24] Greer, Hilber, and Walton, Behind the Scenes of the Old Testament, 493.

[25] Ibid, 495.

[26] Ibid, 498.

[27] Gane, Old Testament Law for Christians, 47.

[28] Sailhamer, The Meaning of the Pentateuch, 283.

[29] Ibid, 393.

[30] Gane, Old Testament Law for Christians, 3.

[31] Ibid, 174.

[32] Block, The Gospel According to Moses, 131.

[33] Ibid.

[34] Gane, Old Testament Law for Christians, 195.

[35] Ibid, 202-203.

[36] Ibid, 212.

[37] Block, The Gospel According to Moses, 135-136.

[38] Jason C. Meyer, The End of the Law: Mosaic Covenant in Pauline Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2009), 282.

[39] Block, The Gospel According to Moses, 134.

[40] Brian S. Rosner, Paul and the Law: Keeping the Commandments of God (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2013), 107.

[41] Meyer, The End of the Law, 282-283.